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[1] Typically used as an umbrella term, activities as diverse as officer exchanges, ship visits, training missions, and joint military exercises have all been denoted as practices of defense diplomacy.
We believe the data we have collected on high-level visits, military exercises, and port calls are fairly complete.
Senior-level meetings, strategic dialogues, and functional exchanges are often used to deliver diplomatic talking points, nontraditional security operations provide public goods that enhance China's international reputation, and military exercises are often presented as examples of international cooperation.24
The 2015 Defense White Paper calls on the PLA to "develop military-to-military relations . . . and create a security environment favorable to China's peaceful development."25 Chinese scholars state that shaping a favorable security environment is a crucial mission of military diplomacy, and Chinese media often trumpet the display of PLA capabilities in the defense of national interests.26 Recent Sino-Russian military exercises in the Mediterranean Sea and South China Sea are intended to show that the strategic partnership between the two countries should be taken seriously by the United States and countries in the Asia-Pacific region.
Senior-level meetings and dialogues provide opportunities to collect political intelligence about policy preferences and personnel intelligence about foreign military leaders, functional exchanges and military exercises offer technical intelligence about foreign military capabilities, and naval port calls and nontraditional security operations can be used to collect intelligence about potential operating areas.
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